Mozart (1756-91) is perhaps the most well-known composer of all time. He and his Austrian compatriot Josef Haydn (1732-1809) are the two most important figures of the musical period known as the CLASSICAL PERIOD (c. 1750 - c. 1800).

To understand their music well it is important to look at the many developments of society and of philosophy which prevailed in Europe at that time - the time of the foundation of modern Europe and of modern history, or the "Age of Enlightenment".

THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

The two most significant political events of this time were the French Revolution in 1789 and the replacement of government by monarchy by the first republic in Europe in France in 1792.

The theme of "power to the people" (rather than to the monarchy or aristocracy) came about in two phases: phase one was from 1763 - 1780, where after a long war, the monarchies of Europe were keen to increase the quality of life and culture for the "common people" to improve the economy and bring political stability; phase two was from 1780 onward where the monarchies who still wanted to keep their wealth and power structures were increasingly attacked for their failure to sustain the move to democracy. The demand of the European settlers in the USA to govern independently from the British King (American Declaration of Independence - 1776) sent an impulse to the European middle class to overthrow their monarchies which could not be resisted.

From 1740 - 1763 most of Europe was at war in the War of Austrian Succession and there was little time or money for artistic endeavour to be supported. After the 'Austro-Prussian Peace' of 1763 cultural life flourished, whether in the areas of architecture, theatre, music, art, scientific research, literature, philosophy. On the one hand, cultural activity was seen as a way of glorifying the ruler and the state. On the other hand, there was an emphasis on the idealising of the natural and contemporary, rather than the divine and age-old. This marked a huge step away from the old Baroque ideals of art and had in it the seeds of criticism of and liberty from the age-old structures of monarchic government and society.

Four aspects of late eighteenth-century life are especially important for understanding the background of the music of the Classical period.

Like the literature of the time, the music of the period had its different fashions:

Style galant - a style particularly associated with the fortepiano composers of the period 1730-1770. It is an emotionally light style with excessively florid melodic writing to simple harmonies, usually in major keys.

Empfindsamer Stil - like the "style galant", but with a tendency to use a wider range of keys (including minor keys) and more emotional intensity brought about through sighing motifs and chromaticism. It flourished in the 1750s and 1760s with C.P.E.Bach as its most significant composer.

Sturm und Drang - A style emphasising the dramatic conflicts possible in the classical style. The music is often in minor keys. The name comes from a literary movement, led by Goethe. The style flourished in the 1770s, especially in the hands of Haydn and Mozart. Mozart's early G minor Symphony K183 illustrates the style very well.




THE PIANOFORTE

The first pianoforte was built by Cristofori in Florence in the years directly preceeding 1700 and called a "gravicembalo col piano e forte" (harpsichord with soft and loud). By substituting the plucking action of the harpsichord to vibrate the strings with a hammer action, Cristofori was able to give the performer the choice whether the instrument would sound quietly (a gentle touch on the keys) or loudly (a strong touch on the keys). Hence the name pianoforte was born.
The early pianos, however, took several decades to establish themselves and took the name fortepiano as often as pianoforte. J.S.Bach played on several instruments while visiting the court of Frederick the Great in Berlin and was not impressed by them. It was not until the early Classical period that the piano's potential and the musical style of the day became became united. With the expression of contrasting and complementary emotions in the music, the various gradations in volume and touch possible on the piano became indispensible to artistic expression.
In the early 1770s the "square" piano (desk-, rather than wing-shaped) was invented. This had the advantage of compactness and proved to be the ideal 'domestic' instrument for the growing middle class population in Europe. Soon a new market for both music and instruments, as well as public performances evolved. The invention of the upright piano (1800) and the iron frame (1835) all ensured the dominance of the piano as the core instrument of western music for the next 200 Years.

THE SONATA

In the Baroque period the Sonata was mostly written for a combination of instruments - 1 (or 2) melody instruments (violin, oboe, flute etc.) supported by a bass instrument (e.g. cello,bassoon) and a chord playing instrument (e.g. harpsichord, lute). In the Classical period these combinations were modified in parallel with the artistic changes of the time to an ensemble of three (violin, cello and piano - the Piano Trio) or even two (e.g. violin and piano - the Violin Sonata). However, with the rise of the piano as an instrument of touch sensitivity and full harmonic and melodic potential, a new type of form grew - the sonata for pianoforte solo. Towards the end of the 18th century this form became the most important way for composers to experiment with new musical ideas before risking the investment of time and money necessary to produce their more extrovert symphonies for full orchestra. Haydn wrote 52 piano sonatas, Mozart 17 and Beethoven 32.

While the Classical symphony usually had 4 movements: Allegro (occasionally with a short Adagio introduction), Andante, Minuet and Trio, Allegro finale - the sonata usually had only three movements. The dance-like Minuet and Trio movement was most frequently omitted. The three movements of the Classical sonata are also characterised by the way the music is structured in each movement: 1st movement in sonata form (not to be confused with the term sonata for all 3 movements), 2nd movement either in sonata or variation form (sometimes a mixture of both), finale in rondo or sonata form.

Mozart's Sonata in C for pianoforte, KV 309 follows this pattern: sonata form - mixture of variation and rondo forms - a mixture of rondo and sonata form.



SONATA FORM
(Using examples from Mozart's Sonata KV 309)

Sonata form (sometimes also known as First-movement Form) is characterised by the following features:

1. It is divided into two distinct sections. The first section (the EXPOSITION) is usually repeated. The second section (DEVELOPMENT + RECAPITULATION) may be repeated.

2. The first or exposition section is characterized by a substantial passage to establish the tonic key (FIRST SUBJECT), a passage modulating to the dominant (V) key (or to the relative major (III) key, if the music started a minor key) known as the TRANSITION, a passage in the new key (SECOND SUBJECT) and closing with a short cadential phrase (the CODETTA), often emphasising the I and the V chords of the new (dominant) key.

Each of the two "subjects" may include more than one musical "theme" (or melodic idea). However, more than 3 "themes" to one "subject" is very rare. In the first subject Mozart's Sonata KV309 there is a fanfare-like theme, a more lyrical theme and a more powerful theme. Both the first theme and the second theme of the second subject are quite short

3. The second section is characterized by being in two "halves". The first - and usually shorter - "half" is known as the DEVELOPMENT. The second - and usually longer - "half" is known as the RECAPITULATION.

In the development the music usually becomes more dramatic by freely modulating through a range of new keys. The musical ideas are nearly always taken from the ideas used in the exposition. The dramatic high-point of the movement often occurs at the end of this part, when the music prepares for a return to the opening key ("tonic") by emphasising the V7 chord again.

In the recapitulation the music of the exposition section returns, usually with the same succession of musical ideas, i.e first subject - transition - second subject - coda. There are, however, three very important differences to the exposition:

(i) the music of the second subject is presented in the original tonic (I) key - NOT in the dominant (V) or relative major (III) as before;

(ii) to enable the second subject to be presented in the tonic key the transition will be altered to lead us from (keep us in) the tonic key of the 1st subject to the tonic key ot the 2nd subject!!

(iii) to extend the codetta of the exposition (often by alternating I and V7 chords of the tonic (I) key to produce an impressive ending to the music - the CODA.

Other changes, which reflect the way the music has evolved beforehand, may also occur a little unexpectedly. For example, if the development has used many minor keys for dramatic effect, it might be appropriate to bring back one theme in the recapitulation in the minor mode, when it had been heard in the major mode in the exposition, so as not to lose the more intense mood of the development as the music progresses to its conclusion. Which themes of the first subject come back now in the minor mode?



VARIATION FORM

Variation form is very straightforward. The composer starts by presenting a musical theme LINK bb1-16- a melody with a simple accompaniment. The theme may be an original theme of the composer or a "borrowed" theme such as a popular melody of the day. There then follow any number of altered "repeats" of the theme, each "repeat" adapting features of the theme to produce a VARIATION

Some typical ways of varying a theme are:
a) MELODIC DECORATION LINK bb17-32 and 45-52
b) MELODIC DEVELOPMENT
c) HARMONIC ELABORATION
d) HARMONIC DEVELOPMENT LINK 65-80
e) RHYTHMIC ALTERATION
f) RHYTHMIC DEVELOPMENT
g) TEMPO CHANGE
h) TIME CHANGE

Take a simple piece which you know well and consider these categories carefully. Could you create eight variations of your own using this model?

Often the slow movements of sonatas or symphonies are in variation form. Many other slow movements show a mixture between sonata form or rondo form and variation form. In such cases the main theme is "varied" everytime it returns.

 

Listen to the whole of the second movement of Mozart's Sonata KV309 and listen out for both the variations on the opening theme and the rondo-like episodes which come after the first and second variations. Listen, too, to how the second episode is a variation of the first one.

 

For variations on a familiar theme (what is now the German national anthem) listen to the slow movement of Haydn's "Emporer" string quartet.

RONDO FORM

Rondo form is also a much simpler concept than sonata form. It particularly exploits the fact that repetition and contrast make for a successful musical composition. The main opening theme (the "Rondo Theme") returns periodically in the course of the movement - always in the opening (tonic) key. Between each statement of the rondo theme contrasting musical themes ("Episodes") are heard - usually in a different key to the rondo theme. The structure of a typical rondo might be:

Rondo theme - Episode 1 - Rondo theme - Episode 2 - Rondo theme.

Listen to the finale of the the Sonata for Bassoon and Violoncello by Mozart to hear a clear rondo with the main theme coming 4 times with three episodes sandwiched between them. There is also a short rounding-off section at the end (a codetta ) to listen out for.

Many rondos have as many as 6 or 7 episodes with the main theme always recurring between them. In such cases it is not unusual for the first and last episodes to use the same music to keep the music more coherent.

When the rondo is used as a finale to a sonata or symphony it often takes on features of sonata form, too. In this case we can say that the music is in SONATA RONDO form. As an example, see how in the Sonata K309 Mozart broadly presents a rondo form shape:

Theme A - C major (link)

Theme B - G major (link)

Theme A - C major (link)

Theme C - F major (link)

Themes B + A + Coda - C major

Look more carefully and you will see many aspects of sonata form are also evident from this plan:

THE SONATA, STRING QUARTET AND THE SYMPHONY

You have listened to the three-movement Sonata in C KV 309 in some detail now and learned much about the way major instrumental works were composed in the second half of the eighteenth century.

Occasionally sonatas included a dance in 3/4 instead of the slow movement or the finale. But frequently in string quartets (similar compositions written for 2 violins, viola and violoncello) and symphonies (similar compositions written for full orchestra) a dance in 3/4 time (either a "Menuet" or a "Scherzo" meaning "joke") was added in addition to the slow movement and the fast finale.

Here is a selection of links to music which will help you to come to enjoy and understand the flexibility and expressiveness offered in the music of the Classical period: